Comparing Criminal Justice Systems: US and China

Comparing Criminal Justice Systems: US and China The two criminal justice systems that shall be discussed in this paper are those of the United States and that of the Peoples Republic of China. When comparing and contrasting these two systems one should start with the premise that both are instituted in their countries in the attempt to curb the proliferation of crime, apprehend offenders and deter potential offenders. Both the U.S. and Chinas criminal justice systems make use of a court system, police enforcement organizations and detention/correctional facilities. However this is as much as similarities go as the two systems are radically different since they are based on ideologically opposing government structures. The U.S government is based on a free market capitalist economy supported by a representative democracy. On the other hand that of China is founded on a social communist ideology. As for demographic figures, the U.S. has roughly 355 million citizens while China has well over one billion, which makes up one fourth of the world population. Klaus MÃ ¼hlhahn (2009), in his book Criminal Justice in China, states that Peoples Republic of China (P.R.C.) was founded in 1949 under a socialist rulership. From that point onwards a push was made to establish basic legislation with regards the administration of the criminal justice and enforced nationwide. The U.S. government is hierarchally based on a unified organization where power is shared between the federal and state governments. Therefore this means that the political system secures autonomy of each state in the U.S. but at the same time adopting a centralized government (Gaines and Miller, 2006). The U.S. justice system is derived from the British common law tradition. Common law is the law that is agreed upon by the common people and exists in two forms, Lex Scripta (written law) and Lex non Scripta (unwritten law). On the other hand MÃ ¼hlhahn (2009), says that the Chinese justice system is quite difficult to put under one unitary system. This is due to the fact that the Chinese criminal justice system was repeatedly reorganized in the wake of political changes and internal party disputes since 1949, when the communist party took over. MÃ ¼hlhahn (2009) also notes that the Chinese justice system under socialism is not an independent administrative system but was integrated into a network of social control and political mobilization. The Chinese Criminal Law is based on the ideological precepts of Marxism, Leninism and Mao Zedong. Its tasks are to use punishments to resist against all revolutionary or criminal behaviour, for the sake of protecting the Chinese autocracy. Gaines and Miller (2006) explain that the police forces of the United States are the successors of Militias originally instituted in the early colonies to protect the population and control the Native Americans. The different forming States developed their own security forces and these operated autonomously. Major cities instituted their own police forces, which function under the control of a city government (Gaines and Miller, 2006). According to Gaines and Miller (2006) Currently the U.S. police forces are structured on local/city/county and federal/state levels, thus having a federal system. All local policing duties are shared between local municipalities and rural localities. Cities, towns and villages are able to institute their own police forces, while others, usually rural localities, rely on a county Sheriffs department for the task of enforcement and policing. Usually the size of police forces in the U.S. is directly proportional to the population of the area being controlled. The 50 States forming the U.S. also have their own police forces that are ascribed to different regions and often patrol undeveloped rural areas. The job of such agencies include investigating crimes against the state such as alcohol licensing violations or welfare fraud, fish and game violations, and highway traffic infractions (Gaines and Miller, 2006). According to a statistic of the U.S. Department of Justice (2008), on average the ratio of police to population in the U.S. is about 2.3 officers per thousand residents, however larger cities generate grater ratios. This police force ratio has stayed fixed around 2.21-2.34 police officers per 1000 civilian population for nearly 30 years. Next up on the U.S. hierarchal police system is the Federal Governments police force that subdivided into various other agencies (Gaines and Miller, 2006). There is the Federal Bureau of Investigation, which is independent of any administration. The F.B.I. intervenes when federal laws are infringed, an interstate crime is committed, or if national security is threatened. However the last case scenario has been taken over by the Department of Homeland Security established after the attacks of September 11th 2001. The U.S. has about 20 federal law enforcement agencies, which also include the Internal Revenue Service Criminal Investigation, U.S. Secret Service, Postal Inspection Service and U.S. Marshals Service. Further more there exist the Drug Enforcement Agency, the Treasury Department, the Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearm Agency and the Immigration and Naturalization Services handle illegal immigrants while the U.S. Customs officials deal with border infringements. However this specia lization of the different policing agencies has its drawbacks. Problems can arise due to jurisdictional issues, when what one should really take care of is the upholding and maintenance of the law (Gaines and Miller, 2006). According to MÃ ¼hlhahn (2009) the P.R.C. employs around 2 million police officers, of which most work is small offices that serve communities of roughly 10,000 citizens. The main policing agency in the P.R.C. is the Peoples Armed Police (PAP), which includes about 700,000 officers. This agency was instituted in 1983 and was formed by incorporating disbanded units of the Peoples Liberation Army (PLA) on domestic defence duty and armed frontier defence and fire fighting. The rise of the PAP shows how Chinese leadership is more concerned with domestic security than it is with foreign threats (MÃ ¼hlhahn, 2009). The PAPs main task is to deal with domestic disturbances, by acting as riot police, guarding government compounds and also foreign embassies. It usually handles border defence but in some cases it is requested to back up local police. Recently it has been employed to suppress anti-government protests. The Public Security Service (PSB) is both a local police and the Chinese equivalent of the Secret Service in the U.S. The P.R.C. justice system also employs paramilitary armed police and more than 1 million security guards. Quasi-police force known as cheng guan also operates in China (MÃ ¼hlhahn, 2009). These carry out tasks deemed unpopular by the citizens, such as collecting fines and tax money, often these are just thugs hired by the official police to carry out such tasks. The Chinese government introduced a new special unit in December 2008, to counter gun-related crimes and organized crime such as gambling rackets, organized prostitution, drug production and trafficking. By 2009 Chinas public security budget was increased by nearly a third, to $4.2 billion partly to tackle internal stresses related to the unrest in Tibet and western China. Also this increment in the public security budget came about as a result to unrest brought about by unemployed workers and other problems related to the global economic crisis (MÃ ¼hlhahn, 2009). In the past, police forces in the U.S. have been accused of corruption and the Good-Old Boy network of hiring practices. Also in recent years charges of racism, racial profiling, and use of excessive force have been reported by citizens and related organizations (Gaines and Miller, 2006). In China family members of victims of crime have often been criticised police for their incompetence and reluctance to make sensible effort towards solving cases that affect them. Another criticism directed to Chinese police forces is that these have a reputation for being corrupt and connected to smuggling. Also citizens, particularly in rural areas, regard these with suspicion. Chinese police have traditionally been more involved in maintaining government control than solving crimes, and this is directly related with Chinas political ideology. (MÃ ¼hlhahn, 2009). As for the US court system, this is a dual judiciary system, of which the two constituent parts (federal and state) function independent of each other. The federal judiciary system includes district courts, circuit courts of appeals, and the United States Supreme Court. The state system includes trial courts at the local and state levels, intermediate courts of appeal, and state Supreme Court (Gaines and Miller, 2006). The primary agents working along each other are the judge, prosecutor, and defence lawyers in the U.S. system. The U.S. law is derived from four main sources, which are constitutional law, statutory law, administrative regulations, and the common law (Gaines and Miller, 2006). The most important source of law is the United States Constitution, under which all other laws fall. No law can contradict the U.S. Constitution. As already stated the U.S. follows the principles of Common law that were inherited from English jurisprudence. This tradition holds that a decision taken in court is always made on the principle of precedent. This means that each case previously resolved serves as reference and guide for new cases. New aspects of law may be determined or discovered and thus a precedent arises. The U.S. justice system allows for presumption of innocence until proven guilty, plea-bargaining, trial by jury, and the right to a quick trial (Gaines and Miller, 2006). These features compose the U.S. justice system which is flexible and according to Gaines and Miller (2006) caters for the citizens ne eds in a batter way. Chinese Law is based on the Constitution, of which Article 28 declares: The State maintains public order and suppresses treasonable and other counter-revolutionary activities; it penalizes acts that endanger public security and disrupt the socialist economy and other criminal activities, and punishes and reforms criminals. According to an article by Jeffrey Hays (2008), the main task of the Chinese justice system has fundamentally always been to protect the interests of the state rather than the individual and to keep the population under control. There is no independent judiciary in China and courts are regarded as weak and subordinate to the Communist Party and the National Peoples Congress. The court system of the P.R.C. is divided into two types, Courts of General Jurisdiction and Courts of Special Jurisdiction. The first type consists of the Supreme Peoples Court and the local peoples courts. The second type includes courts of the first instance, intermediate courts that handle important local cases for the first instance and hear appeal cases from the basic courts and the high peoples court responsible for issues of provincial level. As for Courts of Special Jurisdiction there exist the Military Court of China, Railway Transport Court of China and Maritime Court of China (Hays, 2008), According to Hays (2008) Unlike in their U.S. counterparts, in Chinese courts unlawfully obtained evidence is not excluded in court and an accused person has no right to remain silent but has the duty towards the state to speak, often after administration of corporal punishment. According to Amnesty International, when the Criminal Procedure Law was revised and promulgated in 1996, commentators pointed to various articles, which although did not explicitly state that suspects were to be presumed innocent, when taken in unison the presumption of innocence could be inferred. The penal system of the U.S., like the judicial system, branches into federal, state and local levels. The prison system is supported by governmental funds, in the form of tax revenue from federal (corporate income), state (sales) and local (taxes) revenues. Is also receives funding through Inter-governmental transfer, in the form of federal grants and state grants. Gaines and Miller (2006) sentencing within the US judiciary system are considerably lengthier than those of other western countries and many states have endorsed a three strikes system which forces the judiciary to sentence a suspect to a life term in the case of a third offence (Gaines and Miller, 2006). The USs penal system has a huge problem because of overpopulation of convicts and thus in order to counter this many states have resorted to the privatisation of prisons. Other problems include the imprisonment of the criminally insane, increase of sexual offenders, dangerous offenders, gangs and drug smuggling in the pr isons. The aim of the penal system in China is to reform criminals, however this is carried out by means which in the west one might deem unacceptable. The USs penal system on the other hand is instituted to punish the criminal and protect the public. Both systems endorse capital punishment as their most extreme sanction and such actions have roused many heated debates within modern human rights exponents. Differences of Standard Profit and Actual Profit: Case Study Differences of Standard Profit and Actual Profit: Case Study Incognitos latest costume set is Meridas outfit in the Disney Pixar film Brave that sold through internet. The purpose of this report is to analyse and compare the differences of standard profit and actual profit. All calculations are available in the appendices. 1.1 Absorption Costing System Absorption costing system is used to cost Merida. It recognizes the importance of absorbing the fixed overhead on valuation of stock in calculating profit as fixed overhead is essential to incur to make product. All fixed and variable production cost is included in stock valuation in absorption costing while, marginal costing only include variable production cost in stock valuation5. It allocates portion of fixed manufacturing overhead to each unit of product and hence, it will be brought forward to next period in the closing stock5. Also, it avoids fictitious losses being reported. For instance, a company produces more on first few months to cater the sales for the next few months. In absorption costing, fixed production cost will only be expensed off when it is sold. While, marginal costing would expensed it off when it is incurred that may cause a huge losses at the beginning. The absorption of fixed overhead in stock valuation helps prices to be set with full knowledge of all costs. This is useful for decision making and preparing financial accounts. Additionally, absorption costing system is consistent with external reporting5. 2 1.2 Variance Analysis Standard costing is predetermined costs that assist in budget preparation and decision-making. It allows profit measurement and inventory valuation purposes. The variance analysis is applied to explain the deviations in the actual results from budgeted amounts8. The results of variance analysis is attributes to different elements such as material, labour, variable overhead and fixed overhead. These would provide a better understanding of the business performance and aware of any changes in the organization, economy, or sector. The variances might due to several reasons. This variance analysis segregates total variance into different element such as price and efficiency8. This sub-decomposition would provide more detail in explaining the deviations. It helps in performance evaluation that could motivate managers and identify areas of concern that enables managers to focus on the most critical areas8. It seeks explanation for variances and helps in planning activity by identifying the necessary early corrective action to be taken depending whether variance is favourable or adverse8. It would allow manager to generate more informed future predictions. Therefore, it acts as measurement system and controlling tool to supervise the progress of a project and controlling of future cost by understanding the present costs9. Key findings of the variance analysis 2.1 Possible reason of variances The most critical areas are adverse variances especially those with significant figures. The adverse variance of sales margin price might due to overestimation of standard selling price; higher quantity discount given by sales manager that result to lower actual selling price or bad response of the product that influences management to decide to lower the selling price. Adverse sales margin volume variance may due to overestimation of budgeted sales that is set without careful analysis of market condition. Also, inefficient sales force such as failure in advertisement (marketing) effort or customer dissatisfaction because of poor quality of costumes. Although the decrease in selling price by $4 should reflect an increment in sales volume, however, in this case, it is shown as adverse sales volume which might due to economic downturn as what happen to unexpected sales drop of Hennes Maurit (Fashion retailer) by 5% during Euro zone crisis6. The purchasing power of consumer will drop. Hence, despite the drop in selling price, the sales volume will decrease. Another possible reason for adverse sales price and volume is the escalating market competition in internet of selling childrens costume that affects both the sales price and volume to decrease by 4 and 190 units respectively. Adverse material price variance (Velour fabric and Metal poppers) may due to management careless in purchasing a batch of material with a higher cost without realizing it, ; general increase in price of the material (inflation) or the used of the improved quality of the material. Moreover, it can due to underestimation of material standard price; losing bulk discount as less has been purchased or inefficiency of purchasing manager in price negotiation9. The adverse material usage variances (Satin fabric, Polyester yarn and Velcro) may due to mistake by production department in allocating materials to jobs which causes wastage. Excessive usage may due to excessive wastage of materials by untrain workers, faulty machines, poor supervision or theft existence. Furthermore, purchasing department may obtain inferior materials where it may be unsuitable for use and causes excessive waste9. Also, it may have stricter quality control where, if any material does not meet certain standards in terms quality would be eliminated2. The adverse labour rate for skilled and unskilled labour may due to inflation or increase pressure by labour union for salary increment. Also, it may be the management strategy to increase workers morale by increasing the pay so to improve worker efficiency as where it is reflected on favourable efficiency of unskilled labour. There may be also payment of unplanned overtime or bonus where it has to pay more2. The adverse labour efficiency of skilled labour may due to error where the standard time were set too tight without careful analysis of operating condition and the employee skills4 or human resource error in employing inexperienced skilled worker and yet still paying high wages of the skilled worker2. Moreover, the usage of inferior quality material that leads to inefficiency where more time is needed to produce each costume2. Additionally, this adverse can result by poorly trained or motivated workers which require more time in processing; faulty equipment causing work interruptions; inefficient work schedule and poor supervision of workers2. Adverse variable overhead rate variance may due to underestimation of the rate by management. While adverse variable overhead efficiency variance, may due to adverse figure presented in skilled labour efficiency. The lower productivity causes more time needed for production. The possibility of factory breakdown causes variable overhead to increase, as a day production is lost. The adverse fixed overhead variance for supervisor and utilities may due to the general increase in market price due to inflation. This inflation resulted to escalated living expenses and hence, a pay increment for supervisor is necessary. While utilities, the possibility for wastage of electricity and water when machinery faulty or equivalent. Although the hiring of skilled labour should result to a favourable labour efficiency variance, this adverse variance is possibly due to insufficient demand to keep the workers busy. Hence, production is reduced from 7,500 to 7380 units due to just-in-time principle. Since workforce is fixed, skilled labour would need to produce less costume, and hence causes inefficient in work as they have more idle time, resulting to the rise of labour hours needed per costume from 1.25 to 1.5 hours. The adverse variance of postage and packaging may due to general increase of international shipping. Measure should be taken to control the escalating material, labour, variable and fixed overhead rate and decrementing usage efficiency as it would reduce profitability. It should also understand the reason for favourable variances, so these practices will continue and be used within the organization. Firstly, favourable material price variances (Satin fabric, sequins, polyester yarn, metal hoops and Velcro) may due to inferior quality material usage which incur lower price, changed to a lower-price supplier, obtaining bulk discount by buying in bulk, industry oversupply of those materials causes the price to drop or material standard price is estimated too low4. The favourable material usage variance (Velour fabric) may due to efficient usage of the material by labour. There may have existence of inter-relationship of material usage and price. The better quality of velour fabric used, the higher the efficiency of the material2. Hence, material wastage decreases due to lesser defective material. The favourable labour efficiency variance for unskilled labour may relate to ergonomics whereby work motivation arises when there is improved quality of equipment or materials, or better techniques of production. Also, it may due to salary increment. Hence, the productivity increases lead to higher efficiency. The favourable fixed overhead variance (rent) may due to market price for rent have reduced or it shifted to another venue with a cheaper rent. 2.2 Implication of variances The adverse variance indicates ineffectiveness and overspending by the business as compared to budgeted figures and vice versa for favourable variances. Adverse variances would have a negative impact to reconciliation statement that causes lower profit, as more have to pay (Higher expenses) and used (More time and material used). Also, the reputation would be affected as it is less efficient. Whereas adverse sales price and volume indicates lower selling price and volume sold which causes lower sales revenue. Favourable variances have a positive effect towards reconciliation statement that causes higher profit as less have to pay (Lower expenditure) and used (Lesser time used). 3.1 Comparison Incognito has a net profit margin of 2% as compared to retail clothing sector average of 7.86%. It shows that Incognito has a higher risk that a drop in sales would wipe off profits and cause net losses. This may due to inefficiency in controlling cost as shown in several adverse variance figure (Material, labour, fixed and variable overhead). Also, the recession and continuing uncertain economic climate became the greatest threat to sales over the recent years as what happen to HM with sudden drop of 5% sales and which believed has influenced Incognito with drop of sales from 7,500 to 7310 costumes6. It founds that fancy dress industry is competitive as there shown a growing number of fancy dress like companies and website retail sales exceeded 10 billion in UK alone1. This would limit Incognito growth opportunities and reduce its profitability. 3.2 Recommendation To improve sales, it is prudent to increase marketing (Advertisement) efforts during slower sales periods as there are more competition and fewer consumers especially during current Eurozone crisis. It should utilise social networking features such as Facebook to extend business coverage. Nonetheless, it should keep up-to-date on the costume trends so it would not be left behind by its competitor. If the adverse sales are due to quality issues, it may consider using better quality materials or purchasing new machine. New machine would improve quality, productivity (Efficiency) and less maintenance is needed in the long run. Also, it is recommended to develop maintenance schedule to avoid future machine breakdowns that affects efficiency and costumes quality. To reduce material price, it is recommended to purchase material in bulk which lower the overall material price due to bulk discount given by the supplier. However, it should caution of not causing excessive inventory4. Also, it can bargain with the current supplier for a better deal by ascertaining a positive relationship. Nonetheless, it should always monitor the market for other alternative supplier that offers a better deal in term of lower price without compromising the materials quality. To ease labour rates, it is advisable to hire part-timer rather than full-timer as they are paid according to the actual hours work. This can prevent money being wasted during the idle time and improve labour efficiency. It can consider outsourcing certain jobs to low-cost areas such as Vietnam which is highly productive with lower labour rates. If adverse variance is due to inflation, it is advisable to revise the standard cost regularly so that it will always reflect the current market rates. For utilities rate reduction, it is recommended to negotiate a deal (Lower utilities rate) with the utilities company or seek for alternative utilities companies that may provide a lower utilities rate. To strengthen online presence, it needs to continue develop its B2C websites to ensure it is user friendly; high security to build trust and provide sufficient information on products offered3. Nonetheless, interaction with customer and respond to their feedbacks is important3. Also, it should increase its product range of innovative new fancy dress costumes so it would have larger market1. Ethical issues are important for sustainability as UK adults claiming to have made purchase decisions for ethical reasons7. It should concern with the material used to ensure it is up to certain quality, environmental friendly and cruelty free; employee working condition and pesticide used7. Furthermore, issue regarding trademarks copyright. Incognito took design of Meridas costume, a character in the Disney film Brave without the consent of the original designer. This could be subject to copyright issues and can be liable for fine. It is unethical as it is consider stealing of others trademark. It should encourage employee personnel development by providing training and improve employee attitudes through motivation. Frequent timely non-financial performance measure is advisable for control purposes such as observing defect rates and number of costumes completed without rework4. Additionally, it should identify its market share and target for planning purposes such as expanding and determining quantity to manufacture. 4.0 Conclusion Precautionary action should be taken to prevent material price and usage; labour rate; variable and fixed overhead rises uncontrollably in the future which reduces profitability. Nonetheless, non-financial issues such as environmental, working condition and ethics should be taken into consideration. (2000 Words)

Chine and Taiwan Crisis :: essays research papers

The People's Republic of China has recently passed an anti-secession law aimed at the Republic of China whom they still claim is a rogue province still under the law and subject to rule by Beijing. Taiwan for years has walked a very fine line between fully breaking from China which it began after the Communist revolution shortly after World War II, and full independence which it has so sought for more than a generation. With the possibility of Taiwan seceding from China increasing the Chinese have been slowly backed into a very unfavorable position which could erupt into a regional conflict and perhaps even another World War. The Chinese have publicly stated that if the government of Taiwan tries to pass a declaration of independence from the mainland, the Chinese government would be forced into a position where they would have to "rein in" the rogue province through military force. This has set the stage for a possible conflict which could intensify at a moments notice. Washington DC has stated that if any attacks are made by the PRC on the ROC then the United States of America will assist in the defense of the Republic of China. I think this situation will stop at only words and not lead to an all-out attack by the PRC on the ROC. When the idea of a war between China and Taiwan is discussed it is inevitable that someone will quickly point out the fact that the PRC has the world’s largest standing army. This fact is not in dispute however what is in dispute is the PRC's ability to effectively hit Taiwan with a military strike. Most of the PLA troops are infantry with armored divisions being the next largest part of the PLA. This in and of itself presents a problem for the PRC when fighting the ROC, that problem: How to get the troops from the PRC to the ROC through the Strait of Taiwan. The PLA's first and quickest option is an airborne assault dropping large amounts of paratroopers on Taiwan to secure key installations and airports so heavier transports with the armored divisions and land and supply the mass of the troops required for a full scale invasion. The problem with this plan is two-fold. First of all the People's Liberation Army Air Force has just two Airborne Corps and roughly five-hundred transport aircraft which is not big enough to land enough troops on the ground to effectively seize every installation needed for a decisive victory immediately. Chine and Taiwan Crisis :: essays research papers The People's Republic of China has recently passed an anti-secession law aimed at the Republic of China whom they still claim is a rogue province still under the law and subject to rule by Beijing. Taiwan for years has walked a very fine line between fully breaking from China which it began after the Communist revolution shortly after World War II, and full independence which it has so sought for more than a generation. With the possibility of Taiwan seceding from China increasing the Chinese have been slowly backed into a very unfavorable position which could erupt into a regional conflict and perhaps even another World War. The Chinese have publicly stated that if the government of Taiwan tries to pass a declaration of independence from the mainland, the Chinese government would be forced into a position where they would have to "rein in" the rogue province through military force. This has set the stage for a possible conflict which could intensify at a moments notice. Washington DC has stated that if any attacks are made by the PRC on the ROC then the United States of America will assist in the defense of the Republic of China. I think this situation will stop at only words and not lead to an all-out attack by the PRC on the ROC. When the idea of a war between China and Taiwan is discussed it is inevitable that someone will quickly point out the fact that the PRC has the world’s largest standing army. This fact is not in dispute however what is in dispute is the PRC's ability to effectively hit Taiwan with a military strike. Most of the PLA troops are infantry with armored divisions being the next largest part of the PLA. This in and of itself presents a problem for the PRC when fighting the ROC, that problem: How to get the troops from the PRC to the ROC through the Strait of Taiwan. The PLA's first and quickest option is an airborne assault dropping large amounts of paratroopers on Taiwan to secure key installations and airports so heavier transports with the armored divisions and land and supply the mass of the troops required for a full scale invasion. The problem with this plan is two-fold. First of all the People's Liberation Army Air Force has just two Airborne Corps and roughly five-hundred transport aircraft which is not big enough to land enough troops on the ground to effectively seize every installation needed for a decisive victory immediately.

Globalization of International Relations

Globalization is a relatively new term used to describe a very old process. Since the first appearance of the term in 1962 ‘globalization' has gone from jargon to cliche. The Economist has called it â€Å"the most abused word of the 21st century. † It is much exploited in the modern century and is seen as both a curse and a blessing. Globalization is a process of interaction and integration among the people, companies, and governments of different nations, a process driven by international trade and investment and aided by information technology. This process has effects on the environment, on culture, on political systems, on economic development and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies around the world. For thousands of years, people have been buying from and selling to each other in lands at great distances, such as through the Silk Road across Central Asia that connected China and Europe. Likewise, for centuries, people and corporations have invested in enterprises in other countries. But policy and technological developments of the past few decades have spurred increases in cross-border trade, investment, and migration so large that many observers believe the world has entered a qualitatively new phase in its economic development. It involves a stretching of social, political and economic activities across political frontiers, regions and continents. It suggests the growing magnitude, of interconnectedness and flows of trade, investment, finance, migration, culture, etc. The growing extensity, intensity and velocity of global interactions can be associated with their deepening impact such that the effects of distant events can be highly significant elsewhere and even the most local developments may come to have enormous global consequences. In this sense, the boundaries between domestic matters and global affairs can become increasingly blurred. Introduction to International Relations The study of IR involves looking at the nature and principal forces of international organization as well as the political, social, economic organization of political life. IR is also concerned with an examination of elements of national power, including the limitation of national power and examining how it can be controlled. IR also focuses on the instruments available for promotion of national interest, with foreign policies of major powers and of smaller (strategic) powers and considers other historical ingredients as a background for events affecting the current sphere of International Relations. International Relations is wider in scope than international politics. International Relations embraces the totality of relations among people and groups of people in global society, which go beyond looking at political forces to an examination of socio-cultural and economic processes as well. The international relations are series of global issues and relations which are among the nations, states and organizations with the framework of international system. With regard to this definition, international relation has been explained in the framework of international system. As a process of interaction and integration among people, companies and governments of different nations Globalization is a process driven by the International Trade and Investment and aided by Information technology. This process on the environment on culture, on political system, on economic development and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in societies around the world The effect of globalization upon economy Economic globalization refers to the increasing interdependence of world economies as a result of the growing scale of cross-border trade of commodities and services, flow of international capital and wide and rapid spread of technologies. It reflects the continuing expansion and mutual integration of market frontiers, and is an irreversible trend for the economic development in the whole world at the turn of the millennium. Economic globalization is generally associated with neo-liberal policies. Such policies include reductions in tariffs, the reduction or elimination of restrictions on foreign investment, and the inclusion of services such as banking and insurance in trade regimes. By late 1990s the GDP of the richest 20% of the population was 86% where as the poorest 20% of the population possessed only 1% of the GDP thus affirming, the gap between the rich and the poor, which is being more and more defined day by day and is being blamed upon globalization. The increases in economic cross-border flows that have resulted in more â€Å"open† economies are a result, in part, of World Trade Organization, International Monetary Fund and World Bank policies. All this change is supported by a new international architecture – from the United Nations and international organizations, such as WHO, to economic blocs such as the European Union, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries and the North American Free Trade Agreement. The rise of globalization has created interdependent markets that highlight the pros and cons of leveraging foreign exchange. Many proponents of global business argue that mutual benefits derive from the global specialization of products and services. The general stance is that the benefits of globalization outweigh the economic and social costs by achieving higher efficiency and by providing GDP growth in underdeveloped regions Supporters of globalization argue that the benefits of a more interdependent global economy outweigh the drawbacks. However one cannot be completely blind to the disadvantages posed by this. †¢Foreign exchange allows more products and services to be available, while also lowering costs, because of specialization. †¢Free trade is a way for countries to exchange goods and resources. This means countries can specialize in producing goods where they have a comparative advantage. However Developing countries often struggle to compete with developed countries, therefore it is argued free trade benefits developed countries more. There is an infant industry argument which says industries in developing countries need protection from free trade to be able to develop. †¢In terms of free movement of labour, increased labour migration gives advantages to both workers and recipient countries. If a country experiences high unemployment, there are increased opportunities to look for work elsewhere. This process of labour migration also helps reduce geographical inequality. However, certain countries have a tendency of being pressurized on housing and social services. It can be seen that developed countries such as USA, Canada, and Australia are now restricting the labour intake. Furthermore, some countries find it difficult to hold onto their best skilled workers, who are attracted by higher wages elsewhere. Globalization has also enabled increased levels of investment. It has made it easier for countries to attract short term and long term investment. Investment by multinational companies can play a big role in improving the economies of developing countries. †¢Domestic monopolies used to be protected by lack of competition. However, globalization means that firms face greater competition from foreign firms. This puts pressure on firms to be increasingly efficient and offer better products for consumers. Multinational Companies may be able to force out local retailers, leading to less choice for consumers and less cultural diversity. It is evident that globalization has played a massive role in the economy. It has undergone rapid changes within a short period of time exposing the society to both risks as well as benefits. It is up to the rationality of man to choose between and come to the most beneficial conclusion while keeping in mind that a sustainable economy has to be built for the future generations. Globalization and Politics Globalization affects politics in many profound ways. As the borders between countries get blurred, politics get more complicated. When politicians once had to consider only their own constituency things were simpler, but now we are dealing with things on a more global scale at which point everyone is more involve further complicating the governance. All of the economies are interconnected and what happens in one country can have negative consequences for another. Traditionally politics has been undertaken within national political systems. National governments have been ultimately responsible for maintaining the security and economic welfare of their citizens, as well as the protection of human rights and the environment within their borders. With global ecological changes, an ever more integrated global economy, and other global trends, political activity increasingly takes place at the global level. Under globalization, politics can take place above the state through political integration schemes such as the European Union and through intergovernmental organizations such as the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank and the World Trade Organization. Political activity can also transcend national borders through global movements and NGOs. Civil society organizations act globally by forming alliances with organizations in other countries, using global communications systems, and lobbying international organizations and other actors directly, instead of working through their national governments. An obvious characteristic of globalization is that money, goods and manufacturing have become far more mobile than they once were, with the result that corporations are freer than ever to move, and finance to invest, wherever they choose. Therefore, national governments are less able to control the activities of mobile businesses than in the past, while corporations and finance are in a better position to dictate to national governments. The national state is not so much being subordinated or sidelined as acting on its own, in response to complex stimuli, to reduce the scope of its control over society through privatization, contracting out of government work, creation of semi-independent government agencies, and delegation to other levels of government. The benefits and disadvantages under this topic are also controversial. †¢International organizations and other nations play a role in the politics of every nation. The political system exists as a composite system. Owing to this the countries are wary of their national interest and their interference could have both positive and negative impacts. For example the war in Sri Lanka with the LTTE was under constant scrutiny by the rest of the world. The interference possibly caused the war to extend for a longer period of time, hence making the stabilizing peace in the country a slow process. Sri Lanka also was supported by certain countries and certain others were critical. †¢The politicians are less likely to dominate the society as a whole and reap the benefits for themselves as the political system is under scrutiny and their defects in the world limelight could create chaos in the society and lead to further intervention. †¢Intervention can also lead to unhealthy relations. For example with USA inventing and aiding South Korea, the world immediately split into those favourable with South Korea and North Korea creating further disputes among nations. Even though globalization is in place, every nation does not have equal power. United States is still considered to be the super power and their decisions will play a huge role upon the political system hence creating an illusion of globalization. It is no hidden agenda that many organizations are in fact heavily influenced by the authority of such super powers Globalization and International Law Globalization c hallenges many of the traditional assumptions about International law, its relationship to domestic law, the ways in which it is created and the methods of its enforcement. Law has traditionally been the province of the nation state, whose courts and police enforce legal rules. By contrast, international law has been comparatively weak, with little effective enforcement powers. But globalization is changing the contours of law and creating new global legal institutions and norms. Diplomats and jurists are creating international rules for bankruptcy, intellectual property, banking procedures and many other areas of corporate law. In response to this internationalization, and in order to serve giant, transnational companies, law firms are globalizing their practice. The biggest firms are merging across borders, creating mega practices with several thousand professionals in dozens of countries. In recent years and currently human rights law involves areas such as cultural rights, environmental rights, indigenous and minority rights, privacy and data protection, human rights while countering terrorism, access to justice, international mechanisms for the protection of human rights, and the interface between human rights law and international humanitarian law, particularly in the context of the changing nature of armed conflicts. Increasingly, issues of international criminal law are integrated into the research conducted. The impact of new technologies upon the enjoyment of human rights receives careful attention, including biotechnologies and detection and surveillance technologies. Globalization has led to more legal topics than existed before which inevitably leads to a widening in international scope. Globalization has unified the world at which point law cannot be concentrated to one nation and its regulations only. A common ground is sought after to equalize and stabilize the platform of law as well. To be effective, regulatory decisions must increasingly involve the international level. International law today already recognizes a core commitment to deliver basic rights, subsistence food and shelter, and some minimum level of security, as a function of our basic humanity. The task of international legal theory, or global legal theory as it should be, is to draw upon both traditional domestic political theory, and innovative studies of our new global social reality, to design the next generation of global institutions and doctrines capable of delivering global justice for a global community. Globalization and International Relations International Relations (IR) is the study of relationships among countries, the roles of sovereign states, inter-governmental organizations (IGO), international non-governmental organizations (INGO), non-governmental organizations (NGO), and multinational corporations (MNC). International relations is an academic and a public policy field, and so can be positive and normative, because it analyzes and formulates the foreign policy of a given State. Earlier the impact of globalization upon international law, economy and politics was discussed upon, creating the back drop for the discussion of International relations with regard to globalization. It is evident that many changes have taken place and that states are involved in a co-existence where it can be seen that national matters play a massive role in the international scope. The changes that have been made in the above fields create the core of the effect of globalization upon the study of International Relations. Globalization is a complex interconnection between capitalism and democracy, which involves positive and negative features that both empowers and disempowers individuals and groups. Diplomats and representatives aim to preserve national communities and heritage in various ways, from issuing passports to drafting peace talks. Globalization has demonstrated the importance of interdependent governments and economies. Alliances such as the European Union, NAFTA, WTO, etc have made international relations stronger and powerful. Even though globalization has benefited strong countries and cultures, it can make it difficult for other nations and countries to compete globally. Foreign policy is becoming more aware of how globalization affects its government and people. Diplomats still compromise and support their home countries views and actions, and globalization, in terms of communication and accessibility. Conclusion I relation to the advantages and adverse effects, it should firstly mentioned that Globalization is inevitable and it has played a massive role in the society. Blurring of the lines between State and civil society, increasing political relations between people of different countries, raising the standard of living for the majority of the world’s people, increased impact of global forces of all kinds on local life, expansion of the range of financial, commercial, cultural and soc ial interactions among foreign ountries and nationals, systems of interaction between the global and the local, progressive strengthening of democratic values and institutions, development of new information technologies and unprecedented trade liberalization can be cited as a few effects of globalization. However as with every matter, negative impacts can be seen a plenty. The biggest challenge and disaster that has been brought upon is the effect upon the environment which is not seen as beneficial. Uneven Distribution of Wealth, Income Gap Between Developed and Developing Countries, where the wealth of developed countries continues to grow twice as much as the developing is another issue at hand. It is evident that the super powers still hold the upper hand in international affairs despite the effect of globalization. In fact more countries are beholden to the corporate giants and they have in turn amassed power establishing more security at their positions. Cultural expression is also at risk with the growing concept of globalization. With social media playing a giant role in daily lives in bringing people together it can be seen that western culture is being more propagated, especially in suburbs and that the indigenous cultural heritage of different nations is being slowly washed away. However despite the outcry, it is an accepted fact that globalization is here to stay, whether one likes it or not. It is a process which is almost cliche that has been taking place since the ancient ages and has boomed with the industrial revolutions and technological advances. It is the responsibility of the society as a whole to make wise decisions and adapt to the social changes. However it the super powers appear to be making most use of this concept and it does not seem as if any change will take place soon, even though it is quite necessary especially for developing and third world countries to rise. International Organizations and other necessary associations should play a main role in this situation as they play a rather vital role in the scope of international relations and the betterment of the world as a whole. â€Å"Today, the rich are the haves and the poor are the have-nots. Tomorrow, the rich will be the have-food and the poor will be the have-not food. † ? Bill Gaede

The Double Edged Sword We Call Technology - 1098 Words

The Double Edged Sword We Call Technology In the recent years, modern technology has heavily impacted nearly every aspect of human life. The things we experience, how we communicate, our values, how we develop from a child, technology impacts us in such a way that we don’t even realize it. As technology advances us into a more futuristic world, it is declining us a society as well, hence the term â€Å"double edged sword†. From the beginning of humankind, technology has been developing faster and faster. The first humans had absolutely nothing and, today, in 2016, we have literally everything. This has made people live in a virtual world of online media and this can be dangerous because it can alter the way we have been living since the birth of man. Technology is getting greater and greater but does that come with a price? The more advanced technology gets, the more it seems to control us. 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